Makemikari sangano masero: Organic zvinhu, macro- uye microelements

Mukupera kwezana remakore rechi19 Yakaumbwa bazi zvipenyu inonzi nemakemikari omuviri. Iye ari kudzidza makemikari anoumba masero mapenyu. The chikuru basa sayenzi - zivo peculiarities ose muviri uye simba, yokudzora anokosha zvinomera nemhuka masero.

Pfungwa makemikari anoumba masero

Somugumisiro pokutsvakurudza nemasayendisiti makemikari sangano masero rave vakadzidza uye akawana kuti zvinhu zvipenyu zviri rinoumbwa anopfuura 85 zvine maatomu akafanana. Uye vamwe vavo zvinodiwa kuti zvinenge zvose zvinenge, nepo vamwe vari dzakananga uye kuitika zvakananga mhuka. A boka rechitatu kwemakemikari zvinhu aripo masero zvigare, zvinomera uye mhuka zvakakwana diki zvakawanda. Zvine maatomu akafanana zviri sero kazhinji muchimiro cations uye anions kubva izvo chicherwa munyu uye mvura dziri kuumbwa, uye makemikari kabhoni yeimwe vari synthesized: makabhohaidhiretsi, mapurotini, lipids.

organogenic zvinhu

In nemakemikari omuviri, izvi zvinosanganisira Carbon, sehydrogen, okisijeni uye Nitrogen. Avo akatarwa ari yesero 88 kusvika 97% nemamwe makemikari zvinhu chipo mariri. Kunyanya chinokosha kabhoni. Vose Organic zvinhu zviri murwiyo masero ine mamorekuru ine kabhoni iri kwayo sezvamunoita maatomu. Vanogona interconnected chokuumba cheni (mapazi uye unbranched), uyewo zvinogara. Izvi kugona kabhoni maatomu irimo unoshamisa kusiyana Organic zvinhu zvaisanganisira muchitokisi cytoplasm uye organelles.

Somuenzaniso, dzomunyika zviri Sero rine soluble oligosaccharide, hydrophilic mapuroteni, lipids,-siyana RNA: kuchinjwa RNA, ribosomal RNA uye mutumwa RNA, uyewo vakasununguka monomers - nucleotides. Akadaro makemikari anoumba ane sero neerekitironi. Rinewo morekuru deoxyribonucleic acid, mumwe chikamu okutodza. Zvose pamusoro yeimwe vari ayo anoumba emaatomu ezvinhu Nitrogen, carbon pamwe okisijeni, rehydrogen. Izvi uchapupu hwokutonga yavo chaiyo kukosha, sezvo makemikari sangano muchitokisi kunoenderana zviri biogenic zvinhu hunoumba cellular hurongwa: hyaloplasm uye organelles.

Macronutrients vavo nezvaanoreva

Zvine maatomu akafanana, zviri Zvinowanzoitikawo zvikuru masero-siyana zvinenge, nemakemikari omuviri vanonzi macronutrients. kugutsikana kwavo muchitokisi iri 1,2% - 1.9%. By macroelements masero dzinosanganisira: phosphorus, potassium, kuiisa chlorine, sarufa, magnesium, calcium, simbi uye yavaibvisa. Vose vane zvakakosha mabasa uye tiri chikamu siyana muchitokisi organelles. Nokudaro, ferrous Ion aripo muropa mapuroteni - Chizenga, izvo anotakura okisijeni (umo nyaya inonzi oxyhaemoglobin), carbon dioxide (karbogemoglobin) kana kabhoni yakasviba (carboxyhaemoglobin).

Yavaibvisa ions zvinopa inokosha chimiro intercellular chokufambisa: vanonzi yavaibvisa-potassium pombi. Ivowo chikamu interstitial mvura uye plasma. Magnesium ions aripo chlorophyll mamorekuru (photopigment yepamusoro zvinomera) uye zvinobatanidzwa nedanho photosynthesis, uyewo chimiro maitiro nzvimbo kuti musungo photons chiedza simba.

Karusiyamu ions zvinopa conduction tsinga pulses achitevedza fibers uye vari chikuru chezvinonhuwira osteocytes - mapfupa masero. Karusiyamu yeimwe zvakapararira munyika invertebrate mhuka vane anoshongwa akaumbwa karusiyamu carbonate.

Chloride ions zvinobatanidzwa recharging muchitokisi Kamudzira uye zvinopa pakuonekwa magetsi pulses chaicho Neural dzishande.

The sarufa maatomu vari nhengo chizvarwa mapuroteni uye kukonzera zvavo tertiary marongerwo "stitching" polypeptide cheni, nokudaro achiumba globular mapuroteni Morekuru.

Potassium ions zvinobatanidzwa munyaya chokufambisa kuti zvinhu kuburikidza muchitokisi membranes. phosphorus maatomu tiri chikamu ichi chinokosha simba-nyanyisa zvinhu zvakadai adenosine triphosphate, uye zvinokosha chezvinonhuwira pakati mamorekuru ose deoxyribonucleic uye ribonucleic acids, inova huru zvinhu muchitokisi nhodzera.

Trace basa iri cellular muviri

zvine maatomu akafanana About 50 vanoumba asingasviki 0.1% muna mumasero, akadana microcells. Izvi zvinosanganisira zingi, molybdenum, ayodhini, mhangura, cobalt, fluorine. With yakaderera Nokuraramisa yavanobata rinokosha chaizvo basa, sezvo chikamu zhinji pakugadzira vanoshingaira zvinhu.

Somuenzaniso, zingi maatomu vari jekiseni Morekuru (pancreatic kemikari ndangariro ropa shuga pamwero), ayodhini ari constituent of thyroid hormone - thyroxine uye triiodothyronine nokudzora padanho muviri mumuviri. Copper, pamwe simbi ions kunobatanidzwa hematopoiesis (paumbwe masero matsvuku eropa, maplatelet uye chena ropa masero pfupa mwongo vertebrates). Copper ions zvinosanganisirei hemocyanin ruvara aripo neropa invertebrates, dzemugungwa akadaro. Naizvozvo, ruvara wavo hemolymph mutema.

More zvishoma kugutsikana muchitokisi zvakadaro zvine maatomu akafanana zvakadai mutobvu, ndarama, bromine, sirivha. Dzinonzi ultromikroelementami uye chikamu chirimwa uye mhuka masero. Somuenzaniso, mune kuongorora makemikari chibage weevil ions goridhe dzakanga dzakaonekwa. Bromine maatomu mu vakawanda masero vanobatanidzwa thalli dzebhurauni uye tsvuku algae, akadai Sargassum, Laminaria, fucus.

All kare izvi mienzaniso uye chokwadi tsanangura sei dyidzana makemikari anoumba, kushanda uye maumbirwo masero. Tafura pazasi inoratidza zviri siyana zvine maatomu akafanana zviri masero zvipenyu.

General zvechadenga Organic yeimwe

Chemical ehupfumi masero ose akasiyana mapoka zvipenyu mune imwe nzira novimba kabhoni maatomu, izvo zvinokonzera anopfuura 50% foni vakawanda. Munenge zvose yakaoma muchitokisi nyaya anomiririrwa makabhohaidhiretsi, mapuroteni, nucleic acids uye lipids, vane kunzwisisa marongerwo uye yakakwirira samolecular uremu. mamorekuru akadaro dzinonzi macromolecules (Polymers) uye akaumbwa nyore zvinhu - monomers. Protein zvinhu kuita chaizvo rinokosha uye mabasa akasiyana-siyana mashandiro, izvo dzinokurukurwa pazasi.

Basa mapuroteni muchitokisi

Nemakemikari kuongorora yeimwe kupinda foni mupenyu, rinosimbisa yakakwirira zviri Organic zvinhu zvakadai mapurotini. Chokwadi ichi ane zvichinzwisisika: mapuroteni kuita zvakasiyana-siyana mashandiro uye zvinobatanidzwa zvose zvinobatanidzwa muchitokisi upenyu.

Somuenzaniso, kudzivirira basa kwemapurotini ndiyo paumbwe antibodies - antibodies zvinoberekwa lymphocytes. mapuroteni akadai unodzivirira akadai thrombin, fibrin uye tromboblastin zvinopa kweropa uye kudzivirira kurasikirwa aro kunotevera uye zvinokuvadza. The kunzwisisa Zvinoumba sero kunosanganisira sero Kamudzira mapuroteni kugona kuziva yokumwe yeimwe - maantigen. Yochinja configuration dzavo uye ripoti Sero rimwe ngozi (aramu shanda).

Vamwe mapuroteni vane pamutemo nerevane tiri mahormone, akadai oxytocin, zvinoberekwa hypothalamus, pituitary dzakachengetedzwa. Akabuda pachigadziko kupinda ropa, oxytocin anoita pamusoro tsandanyama pamadziro dumbu, zvichiita rutapudzo kwayo. vasopressin mapuroteni ariwo munhu pamutemo basa nokudzora BP.

The tsandanyama masero vari actin uye myosin vanokwanisa kuti ndizvipete, iro rinoita injini mashandiro tsandanyama tishu. For mapuroteni, kwese uye trophic basa, semuenzaniso, sealbumin mudumbu kushandiswa senzvimbo inotonhorera kuti kukura. mapuroteni ropa zvipenyu zvakasiyana-siyana, dzakadai Chizenga uye hemocyanin, okisijeni mamorekuru Kutamiswa - ishande senga chaitika. Kana zvimwe simba unoparadza zvinhu zvakadai makabhohaidhiretsi uye lipids, zvakazara kushandiswa, sero anotanga kuputsa mapurotini. Mumwe giremu izvi zvinhu 17 anopa 2 KJ simba. Chimwe chezvinhu zvinokosha mashandiro kwemapurotini ndiyo CATALYTIC (mapuroteni, makemikari rikurumidze nemakemikari mu cytoplasmic nezvikamu). Inobva kumusoro, taona kuti mapuroteni ane nhamba inokosha chaizvo mashandiro uye zvakakodzera chikamu mhuka muchitokisi.

mapuroteni biosynthesis

Funga muitiro mapuroteni usage muchitokisi, kunoitika muna cytoplasm Via organelles zvakadai ribosomes. Nemhaka basa chaizvo makemikari, pamwe nekupinda pakati ribosome karusiyamu ions zvinobatana polysomes. The chikuru mabasa ose ribosomes muchitokisi - kubatana kwetunhu mapuroteni mamorekuru, kutanga pamusoro transcription rikurumidze. Somugumisiro vanonzi synthesized mRNA mamorekuru, kuti zviri zvakabatanidzwa polysomes. Zvadaro anotanga kudare kechipiri - yenhepfenyuro. Transport RNA sunga matombo maviri akasiyana amino acids uye auye nadzo polysomes, uye kubva mashandiro ribosomes muchitokisi - a kwetunhu polypeptides, organelles izvi zvinoumba zvivako pamwe tRNA, uye amino asidhi mamorekuru chokuita pamwe peptide zvisungo vaite puroteni macromolecule.

Basa mvura muviri

Zvidzidzo Cytological yakasimbisa chokwadi kuti sero marongerwo uye Zvinoumba dzatiri kudzidza, avhareji 70% mvura, uye mhuka dzakawanda, vaitungamirira mararamiro mvura (semuenzaniso, coelenterates) ayo kugutsikana rinosvika 97-98%. Tichifunga izvi kwemakemikari sangano masero inosanganisira hydrophilic (vanokwanisa Kuparadzwa) uye hydrophobic (mvura-dzinga) zvinhu. Somunhu zvakasikwa polar solvent, mvura wakakurira inokosha basa uye ane zvakananga zvazvinoita kwete chete pane basa, asiwo chaizvo nemamiriro masero. Tafura pazasi inoratidza mvura tigutsikane mu-siyana masero zvipenyu.

Mashandiro makabhohaidhiretsi muchitokisi

Sezvo isu akatsanangura kwokutanga, kuti zvinokosha Organic makemikari - Polymers - zvakare makabhohaidhiretsi. Izvi zvinosanganisira polysaccharides, oligosaccharides uye monosaccharides. Makabhohaidhiretsi tiri chikamu yakawanda hurongwa akaoma - glycolipids uye glycoproteins, izvo zvakavakwa pamusoro cellular membranes uye nadmembrannye mamiriro, semuenzaniso glycocalyx.

Uyezve kabhoni iri carbohydrate inosanganisira maatomu rehydrogen uye oxygenation, uye dzimwe polysaccharides ane zvakawanda senitrogen, sarufa phosphorus. Masero akawanda chirimwa makabhohaidhiretsi: Potato tubers ane kusvika 90% starch mu mbeu uye muchero carbohydrate tigutsikane kusvika 70%, uye masero mhuka zvinowanika muchimiro yeimwe akadai glycogen, chitin uye trehalose.

Simple shuga (monosaccharides) vane vakawanda payakavakirwa CnH2nOn uye rakakamurwa tetroses, triose, pentose uye hexose. Okupedzisira maviri kupfuura mune masero zvipenyu Somuenzaniso, ribose uye deoxyribose tiri chikamu nucleic acids, uye shuga uye fructose zvinobatanidzwa zvinoitwa kuitwa uye dissimilation. Oligosaccharides kazhinji kuwanikwa chirimwa mumasero: sucrose anochengeterwa masero shuga bhiti uye shuga nomudonzvo, maltose iri caryopses germinated rye uye bhari.

Disaccharides vane chinonhuhwira kunaka uye vari nyore soluble mumvura. Polysaccharides, ari biopolymers Zvinosanganisira zvikurukuru starch, cellulose, glycogen uye laminarin. The STRUCTURAL siyana zvinosanganisira polysaccharides chitin. The Chinangwa chinokosha zvikuru makabhohaidhiretsi muchitokisi - simba. Somugumisiro hydrolysis siyana uye simba muviri unodokwairira polysaccharides kuti shuga, uye ipapo oxidized kuti carbon dioxide inobvisa uye mvura. Somugumisiro, mumwe giremu kuti shuga zvabudiswa 17.6 KJ simba, uye matura starch uye glycogen, vanotova cellular simba Dam.

Glycogen ari yakaiswa kunyanya tsandanyama uye chiropa masero, miriwo starch - mu tubers, Mabumba, midzi, mbeu arthropods, zvakadai madandaude, tumbuyu uye crustaceans, chikuru basa simba wedzerai anoita oligosaccharide trehalose.

Makabhohaidhiretsi vakasiyana lipids uye mapuroteni, kukwanisa anoxic kudzikisirana. Izvi zvinokosha zvikuru nokuti zvinenge vaigara ezvinhu enyika kukanganisika kana kusavapo okisijeni, akadai anaerobic utachiona, uye helminths - tupukanana evanhu uye mhuka.

Pane imwe Zvaiitwa makabhohaidhiretsi muchitokisi - kuvaka (STRUCTURAL). It iri chokwadi kuti izvi zvinhu dziri kutsigira hurongwa nemasero. Somuenzaniso, cellulose ndiyo chikamu sero masvingo zvinomera, chitin unoumba yokunze marangwanda uye invertebrates zhinji kunoitika mumasero fungal, olisaharidy pamwe lipids uye mapuroteni mamorekuru vanoumba glycocalyx - nadmembranny kunzwisisa. Inopa adhesion - pakati masero clumping mhuka, iyo inosvitsa paumbwe tishu.

Lipids: mamiriro uye mashandiro

Izvi Organic zvinhu, izvo hydrophobic (mvura insoluble) inogona kubviswa, i.e. abudisa kubva masero kubudikidza nonpolar zvokufembedzwa, zvakadai acetone kana chloroform. basa lipids muchitokisi inobva vanopinda iro mapoka matatu: kuti mafuta, waxes kana steroids. Mafuta ndiwo Inonyanya kubata mhando dzose masero.

Mhuka uchingounganidza navo subcutaneous adipose rinenge Neural zvinyama rine mafuta ari muchimiro ari myelin mumuhara yomupfungwa. Rinotaurawo rinoungana mu itsvo, chitaka, tumbuyu - ari mafuta mumuviri. Muupenyu mafuta - mafuta - inowanikwa mbeu zhinji: vanoondoroka, nzungu, sunflower, muorivhi. The lipid tigutsikane mumasero anoda kubva 5 kusvika 90% (ari adipose tishu).

Steroids uye waxes vakasiyana mafuta ari kuti havana ari mamorekuru kuti mafuta asidhi residues. Saka, steroids - zviri mahormone adrenal cortex, kukanganisa kuyaruka muviri uye izvo zvinoumba testosterone. Vanodawo chikamu mavhitamini (semuenzaniso, vhitamini D).

The chikuru basa lipids muchitokisi - ndiye simba, kuvakwa uye kudzivirirwa. Anotanga nokuti kuti 1 giremu mafuta ari cleavage anopa 38,9 KJ simba - zvikuru kupfuura mamwe makemikari zvinhu - mapurotini uye makabhohaidhiretsi. Uyezve, muna oxidation mafuta 1d rinomira anenge 1,1 c. mvura. Ndokusaka vamwe mhuka dziri kudanda mafuta mumuviri wako unogona kuva nguva refu pasina mvura. Somuenzaniso, gophers zvinogona wakaderera kwemwedzi anopfuura maviri, pasina kudikanwa mvura, uye asingadi kunwa mvura ngamera panguva kuchinja murenje kwemazuva 10-12.

Kuvaka lipids basa iri chokwadi kuti vari chinokosha muchitokisi membranes, uyewo chikamu etsinga. Kudzivirira basa lipids kunoratidzwa chokuti mafuta rukoko pasi ganda kumativi itsvo nezvimwe zvomukati anovadzivirira kubva zvokuimba zvinokuvadza. Chaiwo kumbogadzirwa kuti mudziye basa tinoberekwa mhuka kwenguva refu ari mumvura: hove huru, zvisimbiso, fur seal. Gobvu subcutaneous adipose layer Somuenzaniso, zvitema shato huru iri 0.5 m, kudzivirira mhuka kubva hypothermia.

Ukoshi okisijeni cellular muviri

Kurovedza Utachiona, izvo zvinosanganisira Ruzhinji rwakapindura mhuka, zvinomera uye murume, kushandisa mumhepo okisijeni kuti simba Exchange siyana inoenda cleavage kuti makemikari zvinhu uye yavaive womumwe yakawanda simba vaunganidza muchimiro mamorekuru ose adenosine triphosphate.

Nokudaro, oxidation rimwe nhuta kuti shuga kuti rikaitika mitochondrial cristae wakakwana, 2800 KJ simba iri dzinounzwa, izvo 1596 KJ (55%) anochengeterwa muchimiro ATP mamorekuru ine macroergic kubatana. Saka, chikuru kushanda okisijeni muchitokisi - the Implementation pamusoro Kurovedza afemeruke, iyo inobva boka enzymatic siyana ainzi kufema cheni zvichiitika organelles - mitochondria. In prokaryotic zvinenge - phototrophic utachiona uye cyanobacteria - oxidation muviri kunoitika pasi pokudzora okisijeni diffusing mumakamuri munyaya dzomunyika protuberances ose yeplasma membranes.

Tine makemikari sangano masero kwave adzidza, uyewo dzinotsanagura mapuroteni usage uye okisijeni basa iri cellular simba muviri.