Chii panyama ezvinhu? State kwenyaya

Mibvunzo pamusoro chii mamiriro aggregation, chii inobudisa uye zvivako zviri zvinhu zvakaoma, mvura uye magasi akafukidzwa akawanda ekudzidzisa. Kune zvitatu dzenhoroondo in nyaya yayo chinoratidza mamiriro zvinhu. kunzwisisa kwavo chinhu chinokosha pakunzwisisa pasi sayenzi, iyo zvipenyu zviri maindasitiri basa. nyaya idzi dziri kudzidza wefizikisi, kemisitiri, jogirafi, zvemaumbirwo, panyama kemisitiri nezvimwe anoranga yesayenzi. The zvinhu vari, pasi zvimwe zvinhu, mune imwe mhando nhatu inokosha inoti zvinogona kuchinjwa nokuwedzera kana kudzikira tembiricha, kumanikidza. Funga zvinogoneka kuchinja kubva ehurumende vachibvumirana rwakavapo zvakasikwa, unyanzvi uye upenyu hwezuva nezuva.

Chii panyama ezvinhu?

Shoko Latin mavambo "aggrego" kushandurirwa kunoreva Russian "kuisa." Scientific izwi rinoreva ezvinhu chete muviri fuma. Kuvapo pasi dzimwe tsika tembiricha uye kumanikidzwa zvakasiyana nezvishoma, magasi uye mvura ndizvo dzose anoshongwa Pasi. Kuwedzera zvitatu zvinokosha in aggregation, kunewo wechina. At tembiricha yakakwirira uye panguva kugara vachimanikidzwa gasi iri dzikwanise plasma. Kuti tinzwisise zviri nani zvinotaurwa mamiriro aggregation, zvakafanira kuyeuka kupfuura nezvimedu anoumba nyaya uye muviri.

In zano pamusoro apa: uye - gasi; b - imvura; pamwe - hwakasimba. In nhamba idzi madenderedzwa anozivikanwa STRUCTURAL zvinhu zvinhu. chiratidzo ichi, Chokwadi, maatomu, mamorekuru, ions havasi balls chikukutu. Maatomu rinoumbwa chokwadi mhosva chinoumba pakavakirwa vari kutamira ichimhanya nhingi mhosva maerekitironi. Zivo riri roga nemamiriro acho kukubatsira kunzwisisa zviri nani kusiyana kuripo pakati uwandu hwezvinhu zvose zvabatanidzwa. zvakasiyana siyana.

Ideas pamusoro microworld kubva Greece yekare kuti XVII remakore

mashoko okutanga pamusoro nezvimedu, iyo iri muviri akapeta, akaonekwa muGirisi yekare. Nevafungi Demokrit uye Epicure akatanga pfungwa yakadaro somunhu atomu. Vaidavira kuti duku indivisible tudonhwe zvakasiyana zvinhu vane chimiro yakajeka saizi, vaikwanisa kufamba uye kudyidzana nevamwe. Atomism yaiva zvemberi kuti nguva yaro, dzidziso Greece yekare. Asi ayo budiriro nemhuru mukati mazera. Kubvira ipapo masayendisiti vakatevera Raibvunzurudza yeRoma Katurike. Saka, kusvikira ano hapana yakajeka yokuti chii mamiriro yacho. Chete mushure XVII remakore nemasayendisiti Robert Boyle, M. Lomonosov, D. Dalton, Lavoisier akagadzira maatomu-samolecular dzidziso, havana kurasa kushanda kwavo nhasi.

Maatomu, mamorekuru, ions - nemaziso tudonhwe kwenyaya mamiriro

Chinhu chikuru budiriro kunzwisisa Microcosm kwakaitika XX remakore, apo Erekitironi maikorosikopu yagadzirwa. Tichifunga Zvakawanikwa nemasayendisiti pamberi, akakwanisa akarara pasi coherent mufananidzo pamusoro microworld. Pfungwa yokuti zvinonyatsorondedzera mamiriro uye maitiro worudzi ruduku tudonhwe nyaya, asi kunzwisisa, vanopinda musango kuti quantum wefizikisi. Nokuti kunzwisisa uwandu hwezvinhu zvose zvabatanidzwa. siyana inoti nyaya zvakakwana kuziva mazita uye STRUCTURAL zviri dzinokosha inoramba kuti zvinoumba zvakasiyana zvinhu.

1. Maatomu - mishonga indivisible inoramba. Inochengetwa nemakemikari, asi vanoparadzwa enyukireya. Nesimbi uye nezvimwe mabhomba mamiriro mazhinji zvakasimba uwandu hwezvinhu zvose zvabatanidzwa. ezvinhu pasi kwomuzvarirwo ezvinhu.
2. Molecules - inoramba izvo akaumba uye kuparadzwa nemakemikari. The samolecular mamiriro vari okisijeni, mvura, carbon dioxide, nesarufa. Physical mamiriro reokisijeni, senitrogen, sarufa dioxide, kabhoni, okisijeni, pasi kwakajairika ezvinhu - gaseous.
3. Ions - the mhosva nezvimedu, izvo dzikwanise maatomu uye mamorekuru vari kurerekera kana kurasikirwa maerekitironi - nemaziso nhingi mhosva inoramba. Ionic mamiriro zvakawanda munyu, akadai yavaibvisa, simbi uye mhangura sulfate.

Chero fuma, izvo zvacho zviri kurongwa imwe nzira ari muchadenga. The akarayira hama nzvimbo kwemaatomu, ions, mamorekuru anonzi napamahwindo. Kazhinji, Ionic uye mabhomba crystalline yekamuri inozivikanwa kuti zvinhu zvakaoma samolecular - nokuti mvura uye magasi. High kwekuoma nedhaimani rakasiyana. Its mabhomba crystalline yekamuri inoumbwa kabhoni maatomu. Asi nyoro graphite uyewo rinoumbwa emaatomu ezvinhu makemikari Kufananidzira. vari chete zvakasiyana akaparadzirwa muchadenga. Avhareji uwandu hwezvinhu zvose zvabatanidzwa. mamiriro sarufa - yakasimba, asi panguva yakakwirira tembiricha mashoko anova emura uye amorphous guru.

Fuma iri yakasimba mamiriro

The nezvishoma pasi kwomuzvarirwo ezvinhu inochengetwa vhoriyamu uye chimiro. Somuenzaniso, zviyo, netsanga shuga, munyu, nhindi nedombo kana simbi. Kana iwe kudziyisa shuga, nefuma anotanga itye, akatendeuka mugomba viscous shava zvokunwa. Rega kudziyisa - shure kupa hwakasimba. Nokudaro mumwe chikuru ezvinhu yakasimba muviri kuti mvura Kuchinja - muchidziisa kana kumutsa womukati simba pamusoro tudonhwe nyaya. Solid mamiriro munyu, iro rinoshandiswa zvokudya, zvakare, unogona kushandura. Asi kuti itye ari yavaibvisa chloride, kuva tembiricha yakakwirira kupfuura kudziyisa shuga. Chokwadi kuti shuga rinoumbwa mamorekuru, uye munyu - kubva mhosva ions, izvo zvakasimba vakwezvane. The nezvishoma regai kuramba chimiro yavo chacho chimiro, nokuti sekristaro lattices vaparadzwa.

Liquid nezviripo kubvunda munyu imhaka atsamwira kutaurirana pakati ions ari crystals. Asingachaiti mhosva inoramba kuti anogona kutakura mhosva yemagetsi. yakaumbwa munyu nditongerei magetsi, muri conductors. In makemikari, metallurgia uye ouinjiniya Mazinga nezvishoma vari dzikwanise mvura kuti rimwe itsva yeimwe kana kupa zvitarisiko siyana. Paiva kushandiswa kwakapararira simbi alloys. Pane nzira dzakawanda ndichiva nechokuita kuchinja mamiriro aggregation pakati yakasimba mbishi zvinhu.

Muupenyu - mumwe inokosha inoti zviri aggregation

Kana akadira kuva kumativi pasi chinu pamwe 50 ml mvura, zvinogona kuonekwa kuti zvinhu zvichaita zvinoumba pakarepo nemakemikari mudziyo. Asi mangoti isu teura mvura kubva chinu, nemvura pakarepo kuparadzirwa pamusoro pechiso tafura. Bhuku mvura icharamba chete - 50 Rine mamiririta, uye chimiro chayo zvichachinja. Izvi zvinhu ndiwo maitiro nemvura chimiro nezvokuvapo nyaya. Mvura zvakawanda Organic zvinhu: alcohols, miriwo mafuta, acids.

Mukaka - .. An emulsion, kureva, mvura iyo mafuta mumate anowanika. Kubatsira mvura he - mafuta. Kusvina kubva mumatsime namafuta rigs panyika uye mugungwa. Sea mvura racho mbishi mashoko indasitiri. Zvakasiyana yakachena mvura ine makungwa nenzizi ndiko kuchengeta zvazvichanyungudutswa zvinhu, kazhinji munyu. With pamusoro kwemvura madziva ari mhute wehurumende kunopfuurira chete mamorekuru ose H ₂ O, solutes zviripo. On ichi pfuma inobva nzira yokuwana zvinovaka muviri kubva yomugungwa uye sei kuti aichenese.

Kana zvakakwana Kubviswa munyu vakagadzirira pamwe kwakadonhera mvura. It mamota pa 100 ° C, yaita chando pa 0 ° C. Brines kubika uye votsaukira kune chando dzimwe tembiricha zviratidzo. Somuenzaniso, mvura iri Arctic Ocean yaita chando ane tembiricha panyika 2 ° C.

Physical ezvinhu nemekiyuri pasi kwomuzvarirwo ezvinhu - mvura. Izvi sirivha-wachena simbi inowanzopiwa akazara zvokurapa lämpömittari. Kana vamutswa moyo, ari nemekiyuri anomuka pamusoro scale, kune kuwedzera mumiririri. Sei mune mumugwagwa thermometers akashandisa mavara red pendi doro panzvimbo nemekiyuri? Izvi zvinotsanangurwa maererano ehupfumi ose nemvura simbi. At madhigirii 30 pazasi razero nemekiyuri uwandu hwezvinhu zvose zvabatanidzwa. ehurumende kuchinja, mashoko kunova zvakasimba.

Kana wezvokurapa barometer akamedura akadururira mekuri, mabhora sirivha kuunganidza maoko ngozi. Kukuvadza fema mekuri mhute, ndiko chepfu chaizvo fuma. Vana vanenge zvakadaro zvinokosha kutsvaka rubatsiro vabereki, vakura.

gaseous mamiriro

Gaza haasi kukwanisa kuramba ake kana vhoriyamu kana chimiro. Zadza chinu kusvikira pamusoro okisijeni (kwayo makemikari payakavakirwa O _2). Kana mangoti tikazarurira chinu, mamorekuru zviri pfuma achaiswa hwakakanyiwa mhepo mumba. Izvi imhaka Brownian inofamba. Yekare musayendisiti Greek Democritus aidavira kuti nyaya inoramba vari kugara zvitange. The nezvishoma pasi kwomuzvarirwo ezvinhu, maatomu, mamorekuru, ions, hapana mukana kusiya sekristaro yekamuri, wasunungurwa kukurukurirana nevamwe inoramba. Izvi zvinogoneka chete kana yakawanda simba kubva kunze.

In mvura, daro pakati inoramba iri zvishoma kupfuura mune zvinhu zvakaoma, ivo zvinoda zvishoma simba kuputsa intermolecular zvisungo. Somuenzaniso, nemvura uwandu hwezvinhu zvose zvabatanidzwa. mamiriro reokisijeni yaiitwa chete panguva yakaderera gasi tembiricha kuti -183 ° C. At -223 ° C O ₂ Morekuru kuumba yakasimba. Apo tembiricha inokwira pamusoro apa tsika dzikwanise yakachena gasi. In fomu ichi chiri pasi kwomuzvarirwo ezvinhu. At maindasitiri zvivako vane chinokosha kugadzwa nokuda kupatsanura mhepo mhepo uye kuwana kwazviri senitrogen uye oxygen. Chokutanga, mhepo iri dzaserera uye liquefied, uye ipapo zvishoma nezvishoma nokuwedzera tembiricha. Nitrogen uye okisijeni vari vagotendeuka magasi panguva ezvinhu akasiyana.

Pasi muchadenga ine 21% kubudikidza Vhoriyamu okisijeni uye 78% senitrogen. Iri mvura, izvi zvinhu zviri haawaniki gaseous hamvuropu panyika. Liquid okisijeni ane chiedza-mutema ruvara, zvinonzi akazara kumusoro kumanikidzwa sepombi okushandisa zvipatara. In indasitiri uye kuvakwa, liquefied magasi zvinodiwa kuti pezvakaitwa zhinji kudaro. Okisijeni runodikanwa gasi nomoto uye vakatema nesimbi, Chemistry - nokuti inorganic uye makemikari nyaya oxidation zvavaifunga. Kana okisijeni humburumbira vharuvhu akazaruka, kumanikidza ipfupi, nemvura ichichinja gasi.

Liquefied propane, methane uye butane vari zvinowanzoshandiswa simba, zvekufambisa, bhizimisi uye mudzimba mabasa vemo. Izvi zvinhu vakawana kubva negasi kana cracking walnut (cleavage) ari peturu feedstock. Carbon mvura uye gaseous muvhenganiswa basa rinokosha mune upfumi munyika dzakawanda. Asi mafuta negasi Matura kwezvinoshandiswa zvikuru. Masayendisiti anofungidzira kuti mashoko aya kuchaita kwemakore 100-120. Alternative simba panobva - mhepo aibuda (mhepo). Kushandiswa simba zvinomera kutsanya inoyerera nzizi, Maze pamhenderekedzo mumakungwa uye nyanza.

Okisijeni, uyewo mamwe magasi izvo uve wechina ezvinhu aggregation, achimiririra munhu plasma. Chechienzi achichinja kubva hwakasimba kune gaseous hurumende - anozivikanwa kuchiitwa crystalline ayodhini. Fuma yerima dzepepuru kaviri sublimation - ichichinja gasi pasina achipfuura mvura mamiriro.

Sezvo kuchinja kubva uwandu hwezvinhu zvose zvabatanidzwa. chimwe chimiro nyaya?

Zvakachinja uwandu hwezvinhu zvose zvabatanidzwa. ezvinhu nezvinhu zvisina chokuita nemakemikari transformations, ichi chinoshamisa chaiko. Apo tembiricha inokwira, zvinhu zvakaoma zhinji akanyauka kuva mvura. Kumwe kuwedzera kupisa kungaita kuti kwemvura, kureva kuti gaseous ezvinhu nyaya. The hunhu uye upfumi, kuchinja kwakadaro yo chimwe chezvinhu zvinokosha zvinhu Panyika. Ice, mvura, nemhute, - ezvinhu mvura munharaunda dzakasiyana. Remubatanidzwa ndiro, ayo payakavakirwa - H ₂ O. Pamusangano tembiricha of 0 ° C uye pasi mvura iyi crystallizes, kuti dzikwanise chando. Sezvo tembiricha inowedzerawo akaita crystals anoparadzwa - aizi inonyunguduka, iyo mvura inotengwa zvakare. Kuvakwa apo muchidziisa chiutsi. Kusimuka kwemvura - Kushandurwa mvura gasi - iri kunyange panguva yakaderera tembiricha. Somuenzaniso, muchando puddles zvishoma nezvishoma kunyangarika, nokuti mvura runopwa. Kunyange kuchitonhora unoomesa mbatya nyoro, asi muitiro kunopfuura kuti pazuva rinopisa.

Zvose izvi mvura kuchinja kubva ehurumende mumwe zvinokosha yezvakaita Earth. Atmospheric ezvinhu, okunze uye mamiriro okunze chokuita kwemvura mvura kubva pegungwa, kuchinjwa mwando muchimiro ramakore bvungapfunga panyika, kwemvura (mvura, chando, chimvuramabwe). Mananara aya ndiho hwaro munyika mvura inaye.

How kushandura mamiriro aggregation rwesarufa?

Under zvavo ezvinhu rwesarufa - .. Ko rakajeka kupenyerera crystals kana chiedza tsvuku upfu, kureva yakasimba. Physical mamiriro sarufa kuchinja kana neshungu. Chokutanga, tembiricha vanomutsirwa 190 ° C tsvuku zvikukutu ikanyauka, kuva Mobile zvokunwa.

Kana akakurumidza kudururira mvura nesarufa mumvura inotonhora, zvinoitika shava amorphous guru. Pamusoro mamwe muchidziisa yakaumbwa sarufa hunowedzera viscous rima. At kutonhora pamusoro 300 ° C sarufa uwandu hwezvinhu zvose zvabatanidzwa. ezvinhu zvakare zvinochinja, nefuma inova Urume ehupfumi, anova chinjwa. kuchinja izvi zvinokonzerwa mano nhengo maatomu nokuumba namaketani siyana yakareba.

Nei nyaya anogona kuva akasiyana kwomuviri inoti?

Physical mamiriro sarufa - nyore fuma - zvikukutu panguva ambient ezvinhu. Sarufa yakasviba - gasi, sulfuric asidhi - ane jikichira mvura kunorema kupfuura mvura. Kusiyana hydrochloric uye nitric acids haisi kugadzikana, ayo pamusoro haishaikwi Morekuru. Chii mamiriro aggregation ane mapurasitiki sarufa, izvo yaunganidzwa muchidziisa crystals?

The amorphous chimiro ane urongwa emura fuma, kuva pasi fluidity. Asi epurasitiki nesarufa panguva anoramba chimiro yaro (sezvo hwakasimba). Kune mvura crystals, dzive wandei mamirire zvivako nezvishoma. Saka, mamiriro nefuma pasi ezvinhu akasiyana zvinoenderana pezvawakaita, tembiricha, kufurirwa nevamwe ezvinhu dzezvakatipoteredza.

Ndezvipi zvinhu marongerwo nezvishoma?

Kusiyana dzinokosha uwandu hwezvinhu zvose zvabatanidzwa. inoti nyaya zvinotsanangurwa maererano kudyidzana pakati maatomu, ions uye mamorekuru. Somuenzaniso, nei yakasimba ezvinhu nyaya kunotungamirira kukwanisa kuramba muviri kukura uye kuumba? Mune sekristaro yekamuri pamusoro simbi munyu kana STRUCTURAL nezvimedu vari vakwezvane. In nesimbi, chokwadi mhosva ions anosangana vanonzi "Erekitironi gasi" - kuunganidza vakasununguka maerekitironi vari simbi chimedu. Crystals of munyu inokonzerwa Kukwezva oppositely mhosva nezvimedu - ions. Kure pakati STRUCTURAL vamapoka pamusoro nezvishoma iri shoma zvikuru pane kukura nezvimedu pachavo. Panyaya iyi, iyo electrostatic kukwezvana mabasa, kunopa simba, uye kuvenga hakuna simba zvakakwana.

Kuparadza yakasimba ezvinhu nyaya, tinofanira kuedza. Nesimbi munyu, maatomu crystals akanyauka ari kumusoro chaizvo tembiricha. Somuenzaniso, simbi inova mvura panguva kutonhora pamusoro 1538 ° C. Refractory ndiko tungsten, riri kugadzirwa kubva filament kusvikira filament Mabumba. Pane alloys kuti kuva mvura panguva kutonhora pamusoro 3000 ° C. Zhinji matombo uye zvicherwa Panyika vari yakasimba mamiriro. zvinhu izvi mbishi iri zvikaramba tichibatsirwa zvemichina mumigodhi uye yamabwe.

Kubvarura kunyange chimwe Ion pamusoro sekristaro zvinokosha kupedzera yakawanda simba. Asi zviri zvakakwana wokuparadza munyu mumvura kusvika sekristaro yekamuri dzinokaroparuka! Fani iyi imhaka zvinoshamisa ehupfumi mvura sezvo polar solvent. H ₂ O mamorekuru vakaitei nemashoko munyu ions, kuparadza chisungo pakati pavo. Saka, pokutaura - hakusi nyore vaiitawo akasiyana zvinhu, uye mumuviri-makemikari kudyidzana pakati pavo.

Matambiro anowirirana pamwe mamorekuru kuti mvura?

Mvura kungava emura, yakasimba uye gasi (chiutsi). Izvi yayo huru uwandu hwezvinhu zvose zvabatanidzwa. ezvinhu pasi kwomuzvarirwo ezvinhu. Mvura mamorekuru akaumbwa rimwe okisijeni atomu, iyo inobatanidzwa rehydrogen maatomu maviri. Ikoko polarization kwemakemikari zvisungo zviri Morekuru, zvinoita sokuti okisijeni maatomu kukwana kunaka mutariri. Rehydrogen anova akanaka danda riri Morekuru, zvinonzi nokukwezvwa ane bhodhoro atomu rimwe Morekuru. Ndicho simba kusakarongeka wakanzi "hydrogen chisungo".

Liquid uwandu hwezvinhu zvose zvabatanidzwa. mamiriro dzinoratidzwa kure pakati STRUCTURAL tudonhwe rakafanana saizi. Kukwezvana aripo, asi zviri simba, saka mvura hazvirevi vanochengeta chimiro. Vaporization kunoitika nokuda kuparadzwa kusungwa, iri mvura pamusoro kunyange nzvimbo tembiricha.

Pane intermolecular aiita mune magasi?

vanoverengeka parameters gaseous ezvinhu nyaya aikudzwa kubva yakasimba uye zvokunwa. Pakati STRUCTURAL tudonhwe gasi, pane Makwanza guru, kure kwazvo pakukura mamorekuru. Panyaya iyi, simba kukwezvana asingadi kushanda. The gaseous ezvinhu aggregation hunhu zvinhu aripo murwiyo mhepo: senitrogen, okisijeni, carbon dioxide. The Nhamba pazasi wokutanga kuutio vakazadzwa gasi, imvura wechipiri, uye wechitatu - a fuma hwakasimba.

mvura zhinji vari kugadzikana, vakanyarara kubva nomumativi kupinda mumhepo mamorekuru fuma. Somuenzaniso, kana gomba kuvhura mabhodhoro pamwe hydrochloric asidhi kuunza donje shinda zvakakangwa mu mvura amoniya, kuti rinowanika chena utsi. Zvakananga mudenga kunokonzera makemikari maitiro pakati hydrochloric asidhi uye amoniya, Ammonium chloride inotengwa. Umo ezvinhu aggregation ndiwo zvinhu izvi? nezvimedu Its vanoumba chena utsi, zviduku zvakasimba munyu crystals. Zvakaitika izvi zvinofanira kuitwa pasi Hood, zviri muchetura.

mhedziso

Physical mamiriro gasi vakadzidza vakawanda kunoshamisa yefizikisi uye mishonga: nhamba Avogadro vake, Boyle, Gay-Lussac, Clapeyron, Mendeleyev, Le Chatelier. Masayendisiti akagadzira mitemo kuti kutsanangura unhu gaseous zvinhu mu makemikari maitiro, sezvo mamiriro kuchinja. Mitemo Open kwete chete vakapinda chikoro uye kuyunivhesiti mabhuku ose wefizikisi uye kemisitiri. Vazhinji makemikari Kugadzirwa kwakavakirwa pazivo maitiro uye zvivako zviri zvinhu akasiyana uwandu hwezvinhu zvose zvabatanidzwa. inoti.